"Female Quadis in Iran" Why can women not be appointed as judges in the Islamic Republic of Iran?
By: Nina Mohadjer, Fall 2006
Introduction
Women cannot become verdict speaking judges in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Why?
Is this rule based on the Islamic treatment of women and their role in society or is it furthermore an adaptation of traditional rules?
I. Iran vs. Islam
Women's rights in Islam seem to be interpreted and misinterpreted, perhaps more than in any other religion. This might be because of the lack of knowledge of insiders and outsiders of the religion, as well as the political representation through the Middle Eastern countries, with the starting point of the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979.
The question whether women could be appointed as judges has become one of the main controversial issues, since numerous clerics believe that this would be against the true meaning of the Quran. In Iran, while women are allowed to listen to civil cases as judges, they are prohibited from becoming the verdict-speaking judge in civil courts and absolutely prevented from participating as judges in criminal courts. [1]
I.a. History of Iran I.a.1. Women's rol'e through the Persian Empire
In the Persian Empire, the role of women and their rights was historically determined by their relationship with the king. [2]
While during the Achaenemid Dynasty, the king was the sole source of authority, legislature and executive branch simultaneously, women enjoyed economic independence. They were involved in state affairs and had decision rights in numerous situations (wealth, marriage, and occupation). [3]
Women had the opportunity to choose their profession and stay financially independent, which indicates that regardless of their family status they were not separate living creatures behind high walls, just kept for child bearing. [4]
Through the Achaenemid Empire, Persian empresses, such as Pourandokht and Atoosah, daughter of Cyrus I., were accepted as leaders and rulers of the nation. [5]
I.a.2. Women's role between the World Wars
There was unequal treatment of women under the Qajar dynasty in effect between the World Wars. This caused Iran to be seen as a backwards and unreasonable country in regards to human rights and especially women's rights. [6]
The major date for re-evaluating women's rights in Iran between the World Wars is 1928: Reza-Khan, the ruling shah from the Pahlavi dynasty decided to attend a state event with his wife and his daughters without "hijab", the veil. [7]
The veil was declared forbidden and the statute on this subject took effect in 1936. [8] Women were allowed to choose their occupation, attend universities, choose their attire in public, and had voting rights. Many clerics were outraged by their unrestricted apparel and tried to resist the social modification. [9]
The government allowed women file for divorce, permitted abortion and family planning, and let women act as judges. In 1978 forty-three percent of all university attendants were women. [10]
However, it has to be said that not all women were seeking the so-called westernized picture without hijab. [11] As time passed, some women decided to go back to the traditional attire. Both camps enjoyed freedom of choice. [12]
I.a.3. Women's role after the Islamic Revolution
In 1979, another major change in the role of women role occurred: through the Islamic Revolution. Women were forced to put on the hijab and they were guaranteed to be treated equally on the Islamic level. [13]
But soon after the revolution, promises given to women were taken back. While many women did not mind the dress-restriction, conservative clerics imposed Islamic law mechanically. [14]
The Islamic government required not only the hijab for women, but went further and forced all female members of the courthouses out of their jobs.
Even though women had a tremendous role in the Islamic revolution, they were only given supportive roles and no leadership positions in the governmental institutions. [15]
Hence, women started fighting for their own rights and requested a reform of the Islamic movement. 16 A Persian woman's magazine published that, due to the wrong interpretation of Islamic verses, women rights were suppressed and improperly denied. [17]
I.b. History of Islam
Islam tried to reject the notion that women were objects for the male society. Instead women are described as the nurturer of the public and the protector of humankind. [18]
Arabic society would call "son-less" families abtar, meaning the ones who will not continue. But Islam rejected such a notion. As an example, when Prophet Muhammad's son died at the age of two, the Sure Kauthar (108) was revealed, which secured the continuation of the family through female descendants. [19]
At a time when Arab society would bury their daughters alive, the Prophet would honor women in their role as society leaders. [20]
II. Issue
The issue is whether the appointment of a woman to become a judge in the Islamic Republic of Iran would contravene (a) Iranian law, (b) Islamic law and (c) Hadith.
III. Rule III.a. Rule based on Iranian law
The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran is strictly based on the Quran and states the equality of the genders in two articles. [21]
III.a.1. Art 20 of the Iranian Constitution
All citizens of the country, both men and women, equally enjoy the protection of the law and enjoy all human, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, in conformity with Islamic criteria.
III.a.2. Art 21 (1) of the Iranian Constitution
The government must ensure the rights of women in all respects, in conformity with Islamic criteria, and accomplish the following goals:
(1) "Create a favorable environment for the growth of woman's personality and the restoration of her rights, both the material and intellectual."
III.b. Rule based on Islamic law III.b.1. Sure 4 (Nessah): 34
"Men are maintainers (qawwamuna) of women, scheduled that Allah has preferred some of them over others and of what they spend of their property for the support of women …".
III.b.2. Sure 2 (Baqarrah): 228
"And women have rights similar to the rights against them according to what is equitable and men have a degree over them."
III.c. Rule based on Hadith
Under the rule based on hadith, there are different schools of thought.
III.c.1. Isolated (Ahad) Hadith
An isolated ahad hadith requires the restatement of two people only, and is not accepted by the majority of an Islamic group.
III.c.1.i. Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr was one of the closest followers of the Prophet, who wrote his hadith twenty-five years after the Prophet died. He states in his hadith that the Prophet was outraged when he saw that a Persian king's daughter was ruling over the Persian nation. Furthermore, he declares that the Prophet told his followers that no nation would be able to grow under female leadership. [22]
III.c.2. Indefinite (Mutawatir) Hadith
An indefinite (mutawatir) hadith is told by many people and is accepted by most Moslems within a sect.
III.c.2.i. Sayyidinah Ali
Sayidinah Ali was another follower of the Prophet. He cites in his hadith that the treatment of women reflects one's own respect for humankind and for God's creatures. [23]
IV. Analysis
The question of female leadership came up mainly after the women's liberation movements of the 20th century.
IV.a. Iranian Constitution IV.a. 1. Article 20
According to Article 20 of the Iranian Constitution women and men are to be treated equally. However, the article states that this treatment should be according to the law and does not mention that the genders have equal rights. [24]
The meaning of law is interpreted further in the sentence "… in conformity with Islamic criteria", which means that the treatment is only equal and the basic principles are only considered in a given scope. This interpretation however, is not the one given by the Quran, but is interpreted in the Preamble of the Islamic Constitution.
"The family is the fundamental unit of society and the main center for the growth and edification of human being. … Not only does woman recover thereby her momentous and precious function of motherhood, rearing of ideologically committed human beings, she also assumes a pioneering social role and becomes the fellow struggler of man in all vital areas of life."
The contradiction in the article becomes clear when it is read parallel to the preamble. Sure enough the rights are given, but the woman is considered in her high role of motherhood and mentor for her family society.
On the other hand, the preamble states:
"Through the creation of Islamic social infrastructures, all the elements of humanity that served the multifaceted foreign exploitation shall regain their true identity and human rights. As a part of this process, it is only natural that women should benefit from a particularly large augmentation of their rights, because of the greater oppression that they suffered under the old regime."
Hence, even though it is not directly stated, the Islamic Constitution wants to give women more rights than they had during the Pahlavi dynasty and claims to go back to the "true" Islamic rules. This can be supported by the requirements the Constitution sets for leaders in general:
Article 109 [Leadership Qualifications]
(1) Following are the essential qualifications and conditions for the Leader:
a. Scholarship, as required for performing the functions of religious leader in different fields.
b. Justice and piety, as required for the leadership of the Islamic Ummah.
c. Right political and social perspicacity, prudence, courage, administrative facilities, and adequate capability for leadership.
(2) In case of multiplicity of persons fulfilling the above qualifications and conditions, the person possessing the better jurisprudential and political perspicacity will be given preference.
While the requirements concentrate on the professional and social ability of a candidate, a gender requirement is not mentioned. The best example of the misinterpretation of this article is given in Shirin Ebadi's case, who states that after the revolution she was not able to be a judge, based on the rule that women were too emotional and hence, not able to judge fairly. She and thirteen female judges were suspended from their work and were given clerical roles at the courthouses. [25]
IV.a. 2. Art 21(1) Article 21 (1) also states the "…Islamic criteria…" as the main measurement for gender rights. It even continues by stating that women should be able to develop and be supported in their role as "mother" and "raiser of humans". [26]
Setting the measuring stick with the Islamic criteria leaves a tremendous option for interpretations. These interpretations are usually done by the more powerful people in the political society, which are men and hence, read to their own liking. [27]
One could argue that to become a presidential candidate, one has to be "rejal", which means in Persian "mature and wise ", but this is interpreted by the higher power as a male person. [28]
Furthermore, a gender requirement could be seen in Article 107: "… qualifications mentioned in Article 109, they shall elect him as the Leader". This cannot be supported as an argument, since the Persian language does not distinguish between the 3rd person singular, and hence, him is just a mistake of the English translation.
The Iranian government claims that there are female judges in the country, however, not revealing that they act as "Inquiry Judges": paralegals, legal secretaries and legal assistants. [29]
IV.b. Islamic Law IV.b.1. Nessah: 34
Before the islamization of the Middle East, women in that region had basically no rights. They were treated as slaves in their own homes and were not considered as human beings. [30] For the first time in religious history, the Quran mentions women, addresses women directly, and dedicates two chapters to them. One sureh is named Nessah, the Arabic word for women, another is called after Maryam, the mother of Jesus. [31] Nessah draws distinction between men and women and reveals their different social roles (Nessah: 1), inheritance law (Nessah: 11), and their positions in family law. (Nessah: 23-25). [32]
But Nessah is not the only verse speaking about women. Furthermore, it should be seen as a summary of the entire "female" rights in the Quran.
Several unique women are mentioned: The wife of Noah, the wife of the Pharaoh, and Maryam, the mother of Jesus are cited as samples of believers (Ahqaf: 10-11) and the wife of Egypt's Aziz who fell desperately in love with Yusuf (Josef) is mentioned (Yusuf: 2) as a non-believer who converted.
The Nessah verse is misinterpreted and read to mean that
men are superior to women and
have authority over them. [33]
This is supported by the argument that men are qawwamuna, which is translated as superiority over women. Part of the sureh, which states that "some are preferred over others", is interpreted as men are preferred over women.
However, the Quran does not support this interpretation. Furthermore, it indicates equality among the genders by bringing supporting sureh Al-Taubeh: 71, which clarifies the meaning of care and responsibility. "…for the believing men and for the believing women, they are guardians of each other…" and Al-Taubeh: 72 "… to the believing men and the believing women…" Al Taubeh states that women and men are awliyya, meaning supporters of each other and gives rules for commitment to both of them. [34]
It is also argued that the superiority of men can be seen in the second part of the verse "… what they spend of their property (for the support of women) …". But this argument can not be supported. Before the Quran was written, women did not work, and hence did not have the financial capability to survive. Therefore, judges at that time did not take the ‘new' changed social status of women into account and continued seeing the man as financial head of the family. [35]
Additionally gender equality can be supported by Sure Ahzab: 34-35, where both men and women are addressed.
"Surely the men who submit and the women who submit… believing men and believing women…obeying men and obeying women… truthful men and truthful women…humble men and humble women…".
Afsane Majmabani, an Iranian woman in the judicial field, claims also that she was forbidden to follow her career as a judge. She argues that the Quran does not support this treatment, since the Quran itself refers to female judges. [36] The best example is Belquis the Queen of Saba, whose duties did not only include to rule over her nation in Marib, but to set verdict in legal cases. Sure Al-Naml: 23 also mentions a visitor entering the kingdom and citing at a later date: "Surely I found a woman ruling over them… and she has a mighty throne."
IV.b.2. Baqqarrah: 282
Baqqarrah: 282 states that the testimony of two women equals that of one man, and explains this requirement with the following "… so that if one of them should make a mistake, the other should remind her."
This verse is understood as the main source of women's lack of intellect and their incapability to judge on their own. [37]
This interpretation of the verse is taken out of its context. Given the time and location of Quran's revelation, this statement would have been a very progressive step for women. As we could see from the history of the Islamic development, it is clear that woman did not have any rights before Islam. [38] While Islam did give them numerous rights and did not question their intellectual capability; they were unfamiliar with the world outside their own homes and did have little knowledge about society.
Furthermore, this interpretation against women does not consider the fact that first, women were allowed to be witnesses, and second that the Prophet's first wife, Khadijah, was one of the only business women of her time; nevertheless, she hired male workers and trusted their business sense. [39]
Neither could this be supported by Ahzab: 33, which requires two women witnesses verses one man. This as well has to be understood in the historical frame. This verse was written at a time, when Aisha was accused of cheating on the prophet. She had been alone in the desert and returned with a young man, who had rescued her, hence people immediately started rumors. [40]
IV.b.3. Hadith of Abu Bakr
Since the Quran was not sufficient enough to give rules for every life situation, several narratives were collected, which gave numerous points of view for each situation, and made the religion difficult to understand. [41]The main goal of the hadiths was to define certain topics and give an explanation for Quranic rules. But, regardless of the number of present hadiths, a hadith can only be a rule set as a fundamental rule, if it is not in contradiction with the Quran, is not in contradiction with the human intelligence, and does not contradict historical events.
Abu Bakr's Hadith states that women are not to become Khalifeh, which is the female version of Khalif, the leader of a nation. [42] To support his understanding of the Quran, his followers cite the following sources:
"And when you ask of them anything, then ask them from behind a curtain."
(Al Ahzāb: 53)
This should be seen again in the context of the Quran. To avoid men entering houses where women were walking around in light clothes, and underwear, any door or wall is considered a "curtain". The verse wanted to give women their right of privacy and prohibit any uninvited entrance into their homes:
"O Nabi! Tell your wives and daughters and the women of the believers to draw their jilbābs (a special cloak that covers the entire body) close around them ...."
(Al Ahzāb:59)
This is directed mainly to the women of the prophet. They should cover themselves up as a sign of dignity and superior standing. Their cover showed in public that they did not belong to the working class, but to the higher class, and should not be approached under any circumstances. [43]
His stance is supported by Al-Zukhruf: 18 "… Is then one brought up among trinkets and unable to give a clear account in a dispute (to be associated with Allāh). This hadith argues that women's intellect is so low that they would not be able to express themselves and decide between wrong and right, since they are preoccupied with their beauty. [44]
He cites the Battle of the Camel, in which one of the prophet's wives Aisha was the commander of the army and led them into the battlefield, which cost most of the soldiers their lives. Additionally, Abu Bakr states that Aisha herself regretted the fact of taking a leadership position. 45 Hence, he argues that not only should women not have leadership positions, but also they do not want to have them.
What he does not consider are the following facts: The Prophet Mohammad was alive at the time of the Battle, and he himself gave his young wife the control of the army. In addition, none of the soldiers rebelled against the female leadership. [46]
If the position of women were as Abu Bakr claimed it to be, it is denying the fact that the prophet treated his daughter, Fatimah, with such respect and used her as a sample of a religious, yet independent woman. [47] This hadith also does not consider the fact that after the first collection of the Quran, it was trusted to one of the prophet's wives, who made copies and distributed them amongst Muslims. [48]
Abu Bakr's hadith also does not consider the fact that the first follower of the Prophet and his "new" religion was his first wife, Kahdijah. [49] If Islam treated women as unreasonable and weak, it would have not accepted their participation.
Additionally, it is stated that the first person to commit jihad in the name of Islam, was a woman. 50 Moreover, Abu Bakr's position does not explain why the Quran would give women rights regarding family affairs, inheritance and would let them have their own property without male guardianship, and on the other side treat them as incapable creatures. [51]
His argument, that the prophet had apparently stated that a nation under female leadership could not develop properly, has no basis in the Quran. Al Naml: 31 tells us about the queen of Sabah, Belquiz, who was the head of her nation and due to her belief is highly recognized and respected. [52]
Hence, the hadith of Abu Bakr would contradict the Quranic verses and denies the historical events.
This hadith is an isolated one, and it does not have the competence of being rule binding. It is therefore unreasonable to regard it as a source of whether women can be appointed as leaders, in this case as verdict speaking judges.
IV.b.4. Hadith of Sayyidinah Ali
This general (mutawatir) hadith states that the Prophet had appointed a woman as the leader of the prayer, while numerous elder men were around. [53]
Additionally he states the Prophet consulted women on many occasions for decisions. This definitely does not support the argument that women lack intelligence. Seyyadinah Ali affirms further that the Prophet wanted women to have an independent life, marry and get a divorce whenever they wanted to. [54]
Even if the Prophet did not truly want women to hold leadership positions, there should be a distinction between the leadership positions in different circumstances.
Personalized leadership, where the ruler is not dependent on anyone else,
Absolute, with no sanctions, and
Not absolute, with sanctions [55]
The appointment of women as judges would clearly fall into the last category, due to the fact that her power would not be absolute, and she would be required to obey the written law.
Conclusion
In conclusion it can be said that the appointment of women as judges does not contradict the Quran or the position of Persian women in the Iranian constitution.
Furthermore, the policy against this is based on the traditional interpretation that women are inferior and emotional. Hence, they would not be able to fulfill the job requirements of being objective and critical. As Motahari states in his writing (Die Stellung der Frau im Islam) Women in Islam:
"In our modern times we do accept the differences between men and women, there are psychological ones and biological ones, and however, through the differentiation they should enhance each other". [56]
Most likely, the notion that women cannot be judges is based on some hadiths with the belief that women were made after god created men. But this should not make women inferior in terms of choosing their occupation. It is unfortunate that no one has the possibility to challenge this treatment and request a legal change from the Iranian government. It is upsetting to see that no one is able to petition the government to make constitutional changes. I truly believe that the Islamic Republic of Iran has to put traditions aside and interpret the Quran for the modern times. Sure enough, it might be extraordinary to see a woman speaking out the verdict and the change might not be accepted quickly by the Iranian society. But even for that, the answer lies within the Quran: Ra'd:11
"Allah does not change the situation of people unless they change it themselves."
Footnotes:
Inteview with Mohamed Pirnia, civil court attorney in the Islamic Republic of Iran (November 1, 2006)
Masumeh Price, [www.parstime.com], for example the King's mother had the highest ranks and seems to have been the head of the female members of the household. The next was the Queen (mother of the crown prince or the principal wife) followed by the king's daughters and sisters. They all had titles with recognized authority at the court, and had their own administration for managing their considerable wealth. Funerary customs and inscriptions commemorating the death of royal women also reflect the official recognition of these women, particularly the king's mother and wife.
Richard Foltz, Spirituality in the Land of the Noble, p. 35
Masumeh Price, www.parstime.com, they had employment opportunities earned wages and as a result were able to be economically independent. Patriarchal system prevailed and husbands and other males had far more rights and privileges than their wives or children.
Richard Foltz, Spirituality in the Land of the Noble, p.124
Nikki Keddie, Iran:Understanding the Enigma, www.iranchamber.com
Massud Behnud, In seh san, p.197-199 "Ashraf Pahlavi says that her sister, her mother and she herself were looked down from the Farmanfarma and Teymourtadj family before her father became the shah of Iran. But once she took off her veil and behaved like a western woman, she was accepted by the aristocratic families in Iran."
Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeinis, p.135 „ Higab" is the traditional veil for Persian women. Reza Khan said that women over the country should be forced by special police agents to remove the "fabric prison". The statute was put into force on January 7th, 1936.
Nikki Keddie, Iran: Understanding the Enigma, www.iranchamber.com/
Alison E. Graves, Women in Iran: Obstacles to human rights and possible solutions
Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeinis, p..220
The Pahlevi Dynasty, www.persianmirror.com
Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeinis, p.14
Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeinis, p.22
Asghar Ali, Iran between Liberalism and Orthodoxy, www.ecumene.org
Asghar Ali, Iran between Liberalism and Orthodoxy, www.ecumene.org
Mahsa Shekarloo, Iranian Women Take On the Constitution, www.merip.org
Asghar Ali, Iran between Liberalism and Orthodoxy, www.ecumene.org
Nina Kristiansen, Women's resources are wasted in Iran, www.kilden.forskningsradet.no
Taghavi, Stellung und Wert der Frau im Islam, The Prophet was told after the death of his son that his daughter was able to continue his teachings and become the head of the Islamic society.
Taghavi, Stellung und Wert der Frau im Islam, Fatima az-Zahra was involved from the beginning in the sociopolitical engagement of her father and her husband Hazrate Ali. She was used as a sample for the working and honorable woman. Mohammad would stand up as soon as she would enter a room and kiss her hands in front of everybody.
Our protest against Violations of women's rights in the Iranian Constitution, www.waf.gn.apc.org
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org; Hadith of Abu Bakr.
"One who honors women is himself honorable, and one who insults women is himself low."
Reforming Iran, Interview with Shirin Ebadi, www.law.stanford.edu
Our protest against Violations of women's rights in the Iranian Constitution, www.waf.gn.apc.org
Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeinis, p. 34
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Maryam Javaherian , Women's human rights in Iran: What can the international human rights system do?
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Motahari, Die Stellung der Frau im Islam, p. 12
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Aharon Layish, Women and Islamic law in a non-Muslim Country, p.355
http://waf.gn.apc.org
Nikki Keddie, Iran: Understanding the Enigma, Nikki Keddie, Iran: Understanding the Enigma, www.iranchamber.com
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Wiebke Walther, Women in Islam, p.155
www.islamic.org- Ideals and role models for women in Qur'an, Hadith and Sirah--- "… people making such accusations against chaste women must produce four eye witnesses to the act or suffer a flogging themselves and have their evidence rejected ever after."
www.islamic.org
Walther, Wiebke, Women in Islam, p.154
www.jamiat.co.za, November 2006
Wiebke Walther, Women in Islam, P.167
www.jamiat.co.za, November 2006
Aisha had apparently said "It would be more to my liking had I remained in my house and not gone on the expedition to Basra."
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Taghavi, Wert und Stellung der Frau im Islam
Marcel Boisers, L'Humanisme de l'Islam , P.104-10
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Women Judges, www.sisterhoodofislam.org "... Balquis qualities were not based on her gender, but chosen based on her qualifications, her independent judgment, her faith, and her political skills."
Women Judges, www.sisterhoodsofislam.org, "The prophet appointed Umm Waraqah to be the imam to lead the prayers of her household, while the muezzin was an elderly man."
Beheshti, Den Islam begruenden und begreifen, p. 25
Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
Motahari, Die Stellung der Frau im Islam, p.39
Research List:
Books
Morteza Motahari, Stellung der Frau im Islam, Islamische Renaissance, 1st edition, 1982
Richard C.Foltz, Spirituality in the Land of the Noble: How Iran shaped the world's religions), Oneworld, 2004
Walther, Wiebke, Women in Islam, Princeton, 1st edition (1981)
Massud Behnud, In seh san, Bahman Prints- 5th edition (1999)
Imam Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeini, Die Frau aus der Sicht Imam Khomeinis, P.s- Institution zur Kordination und Publikation der Werke Imam Khomeini, Fruehling 2001, 1.Auflage
Schahid Ayatollah Beheshti, Den Islam begruenden und begreifen, Islamic Culture and Relations Organization, Department of Translation and Publication, 1997, 2.Auflage
Interviews and Articles
Interview with Mohamed Pirnia, civil court attorney in the Islamic Republic of Iran (11-01-2006)
Seyed MohammadTaghavi, Stellung und Wert der Frau im Islam, Islamisches Zentrum Hamburg (2006)
Periodicals
Maryam Javaherian, Women's human rights in Iran: What can the international human rights system do?,73, Santa Clara L.R., (2000)
Alison E. Graves, Women in Iran: Obstacles to human rights and possible solutions, American University Journal of Gender and the Law, 57, (Fall 1996)
Aharon Layish, Women and Islamic law in a non-Muslim Country- The American Journal of Comparative Law, 24, (Spring, 1976), at 354-358
Marcel Boisers, L'Humanisme de l'Islam (3rd. ed., Paris, 1985CE), International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 56, (Spring, 1980)
Websites
Mahsa Shekarloo, Iranian Women Take On the Constitution, www.merip.org
www.islamic.org
Reforming Iran, Interview with Shirin Ebadi, www.stanford.edu, November 2006
www.jamiat.co.za, November 2006
Nina Kristiansen, Women's resources are wasted in Iran, www.kidlen.forskningrsadet.no
Masumeh Price, www.parstime.com (October 2006)
WAF articles, Our Protest against Violations of Women's Rights in the Iranian Constitution, www.waf.gn.apc.org
Nikki Keddie, Iran: Understanding the Enigma, www.iranchamber.com
The Pahlavi Dynasty, The Pahlavi Dynasty, www.persianmirror.com
Asghar Ali, Iran between Liberalism and Orthodoxy, www.ecumene.org
Women Judges, Women Judges, www.sistersofislam.org
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