History of Iran

Median Empire, 728 - 550 BCE

By: Amir Majlesi Shirazi

Map of Median Empire

The Median Empire was the first Iranian dynasty, occupying a region that roughly corresponds to present-day northwestern Iran, northern Khvarvaran and Asuristan (modern-day Iraq), and parts of eastern and central Anatolia. Its inhabitants, known as the Medes, and their neighbors, the Persians, spoke closely related Iranian languages, including Median and Old Persian. Historians know relatively little about Median culture, although it appears that both Zoroastrianism and other polytheistic religious traditions were practiced. A priestly caste known as the Magi also played an important role in Median society.

According to tradition, the founder of the Median kingdom was Deioces, who, as reported by Herodotus, reigned from 728 to 675 BCE and established the Median capital at Ecbatana (Hâgmatâna, modern Hamadan). Some scholars have attempted to identify him with Daiaukku, a local Zagros ruler mentioned in Assyrian cuneiform records as one of the captives deported by Sargon II in 714 BCE. However, this identification remains highly uncertain. Based on the available Assyrian sources, no Median kingdom resembling the one described by Herodotus appears to have existed during the early seventh century BCE. At most, Herodotus may have been preserving a Median tradition or legend concerning the origins of the kingdom.

According to Herodotus in The Histories, Deioces was succeeded by his son Phraortes (675–653 BCE), who is said to have subjugated the Persians before losing his life in an unsuccessful campaign against the Assyrians. While parts of this account may contain historical truth, the evidence remains uncertain.

Assyrian records refer to a figure named Kashtariti, who led a coalition of Medes, Scythians, Mannaeans, and various other Zagros peoples that posed a significant threat to Assyria's eastern frontier during the reign of Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE). Some scholars have suggested that Phraortes and Kashtariti may have been the same individual, although this identification cannot be conclusively established on either historical or linguistic grounds. Nevertheless, it is entirely plausible that a Median ruler during this period exercised political and military authority over the Persians, even if the available evidence does not permit a definitive conclusion.

The lion of Ecabtana, Hephaestion's tomb

Beginning as early as the 9th century BCE, and with increasing impact during the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE, groups of nomadic warriors entered western Iran, probably from regions beyond the Caucasus. Among these groups, the Scythians were the most prominent, and their arrival on the Iranian plateau may have marked a significant turning point in Iron Age history.

Herodotus describes in some detail a period of Scythian dominance, commonly referred to as the Scythian interregnum in Median history. The chronology of this event remains uncertain; however, it has traditionally been placed between the reigns of Phraortes and Cyaxares, spanning approximately 653 to 625 BCE. Whether such an interregnum actually occurred and, if so, whether it should be dated later than traditionally assumed remain matters of scholarly debate.

What is clear is that by the mid-7th century BCE, large numbers of Scythians were present in western Iran. Together with the Medes and other regional groups, they posed a serious threat to Assyria and significantly altered the existing balance of power in the region.

According to Herodotus, the Scythians were overthrown during the reign of Cyaxares of Media (625–585 BCE) when their leaders were induced to become intoxicated at a banquet and were subsequently killed. Modern historians, however, generally regard this account with caution. It is more likely that the Scythians either withdrew voluntarily from western Iran to seek opportunities for plunder elsewhere or were gradually absorbed into the expanding Median confederation.

Cyaxares is a firmly attested historical figure who appears in cuneiform sources under the name Uvakhshatra. Herodotus credits him with reorganizing the Median army into specialized units of spearmen, archers, and cavalry. This military reorganization strengthened Median power and enabled the Medes to challenge Assyrian dominance.

In 615 BCE, the Medes attacked Arrapkha, one of Assyria’s important frontier cities. The following year, they laid siege to Nineveh but failed to capture it. Instead, they successfully stormed Ashur, the religious capital of Assyria. Shortly thereafter, an alliance between the Medes and the Babylonians was strengthened through a dynastic marriage between Cyaxares’ granddaughter and Nebuchadnezzar II, the son of the Babylonian king Nabopolassar.

In 612 BCE, the assault on Nineveh was renewed, and the city fell in late August. Although the Babylonians arrived too late to play a major role in the final stages of the battle, the combined Median and Babylonian forces subsequently pursued the retreating Assyrians westward into Syria. Appeals for Egyptian assistance proved unsuccessful, and the last Assyrian ruler, Ashur-uballit II, disappeared from the historical record in 609 BCE, marking the end of the Assyrian Empire.

Golden rhyton from Ecbatana Tehran (National Museum)

The next challenge, of course, was the division of the conquered territories among the victors. Although the cuneiform sources provide relatively little detail, it appears that the Babylonians inherited most of the former Assyrian possessions within the Fertile Crescent, while their Median allies assumed control of the highland regions.

The Medes gained authority over territories in eastern Anatolia that had previously belonged to Urartu and eventually became involved in conflict with the Lydians, the dominant power in western Asia Minor. In 585 BCE, peace was established between Media and Lydia, probably through Babylonian mediation, and the Halys River (modern Kızılırmak) was recognized as the boundary between the two kingdoms.

As a result, a new balance of power emerged in the ancient Near East among the Medes, Lydians, Babylonians, and, farther to the south, the Egyptians. At the time of his death, Cyaxares ruled an extensive realm extending from the Halys River across much of western Iran, perhaps as far east as the region of modern Tehran, and including southwestern Iran, notably Fars.

Whether these territories should properly be described as a unified kingdom remains a matter of debate. It is possible that authority over the diverse Iranian and non-Iranian peoples inhabiting these lands was exercised through a loose confederation rather than a centralized state. Such an arrangement would be consistent with the ancient Iranian royal title “King of Kings,” which implies the rule of a paramount sovereign over subordinate rulers and peoples.

Astyages succeeded his father, Cyaxares, as ruler of the Median Empire and reigned from 585 to 550 BCE. Comparatively little is known about his reign. Relations with Babylon appear to have deteriorated, and some evidence suggests that the Babylonians may have viewed Median power with increasing concern. However, the Medes were soon in no position to threaten their neighbors, as Astyages himself faced growing internal and external challenges. Ultimately, both Astyages and the Median Empire were overthrown by the rise of Cyrus II the Great, whose ascendancy transformed the political landscape of the Iranian world.